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Contoh Makalah Syntax

Contoh Makalah Syntax Thank Godweprayedto Allah SWTwhohas givengrace andHis gift tous so wemanaged tofinishthepaperon timeentitled "Word Level".

This papercontainsinformationabout the word level.We realizethat this paperis far from perfect, therefore criticism and suggestionsfromall stakeholdersthat arebuiltfor the perfectionwe alwayshopedthis paper.

Finally,we saythank youto all those whohave participatedin the preparation ofthis paperfrom beginning to end. May Allahalwaysbe pleased withall our efforts. Amen.

Pare-pare, May2013

group IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE………………………………………………………………………….

TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………………….

CLASSIFICATION OF WORD……………………………………………………

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH……………………………….

IDENTIFICATION OF FUNCTION WORDS…………………………………….

FORMAL FEATURES OF THE FOUE PARTS OF SPEECH……………………

WORD LEVEL FORMULA……………………………………………………….

v THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

The classification of words applied here is not the traditional classification which, based mainly on meaning, classifies all English words commonly into seven parts of speech:

1. Noun

2. Verb

3. Adjective

4. Adverb

5. Preposition

6. Conjunction

7. Interjection

It is based on the new classification which classifies all English words into two main divisions, namely, Class Words and Function Words. The class words can be further subdivided into: class 1 words (nouns), class 2 words (verbs), class 3 words (adjectives), and class 4 words (adverbs). It is these four classes of word which are called the parts of speech.

The other words which do not belong to these four parts of speech are called function words, namely, words which do not have lexical meanings. These function words always occur with the parts of speech to form phrases.

Based on the parts of speech they occur with, the function words can be subdivided into the following groups: determiner, auxiliaries, intensifiers, prepositions, conjunctions, and question words. The determiners are function words covering the articles, numerals, demonstratives, and possessive pronouns. The auxiliaries are function words which always occur with verbs to form verb phrases. The intensifiers are function words which always occur with adjectives and adverbs to form adjective phrases and adverb phrases. The preposition are function words which always precede nouns or noun phrases to form prepositional phrases or relater-axis phrases. The conjunction are function words which always connect word, phrases, or clauses to form coordinate constructions. The question words are function words used to form question, particularly information question, namely, questions giving further information to listeners.

Fries (1864:75) made us of the so-called minimum free utterance test frames to classify or to identify all English word. The test frames are as follows:

Frame A: The concert was good (always)

Frame B: The clerk remembered the ta (suddenly)

Frame C: The team went there

1. The Identification of The Parts of Speech

a. Nouns

All English noun can be identified by using the three test frames, as follows:

v Frame A

The concert was good

Man

Woman

Film

Theatre

Play

v Frame B

The clerk remembered the tax

Worker Book

Teacher Secret

Student Ball

Boy Toy

Girl Secret

v Frame C

The team went there

Players

Students

Teachers

Group

In frame A, only singular nouns can be identified. To identify plural nouns, we have to use were instead of was. Some examples are given below:

The films are/were good

Plays

Concerts

Dramas

Etc.

There are still many nouns that cannot be identified with this frame. There are many nouns in English that are not preceded by the article, including proper nouns and pronouns. We have to adjust the frame by putting by the article between brackets indicating that it is optional which means that it may or may not occur in the frame.

b. Verbs

To identify all verbs in English, we can also use the three test frames.

Frame A

1 2

(The) ---------- is/was good

---------- s are/were

Seems/seemed

Seem

Sounds/sounded

Sound

All words that can occupy the position of is/was or are/were in the frame are verbs. These verbs are often called linking verbs or equative verbs. Its number is very limited. A list of linking verb is given in the following: feel, taste, smell, look, grow, become, seem, appear, remain, stay, sound, and be.

Frame B

1 2 1

(The) --------- remembered (the) ----------

----------s ----------s

Paid

Sent

Received

Collected

Rejected

All word that can occupy the position of rememberedin the frame are verbs, namely, verbs which require objects. These verbs are called transitive verbs and its number is rather large.

Frame C

1 2

(The) -------- went there

Arrived

Stayed

Worked

Came

Lived

All word that can occupy the position of wentin the frame are verbs. These verbs belong to the so-called intransitive verbs, namely, verbs which do not require objects.

c. Adjectives

All adjectives in English can be identified using Frame A, but it must be adjusted. Adjectives can be used either as predicate complements or as modifiers of nouns. As modifiers of nouns, adjectives usually precede nouns. So, its frame should be as follows:

Frame A

3 1 2 3

(The) good -------- is/was good

-------- s

Nice Nice

Interesting Interesting

Friendly Friendly

Necessary Necessary

Lovely Lovely

All words that can occupy the position of goodeither before nouns or after linking verbs are adjectives.

d. Adverbs

Adverbs in English can be identified as follows:

Frame A

3 1 3 4

(The) --------- ---------- is/was --------- always

----------s are/were

sometimes

here

there

soon

now

Frame B

1 2 1 4

(The) ---------- remembered (the) ---------- suddenly

----------s ----------s

Soon

later

clearly

always

especially

Frame C

1 2 4

(The) ----------- went there

Out

back

down

away

all words that can occupy the position of always in frame A, the position of suddenly in frame B, and the position of there in frame C are adverbs.

2. The identification of function words

a. Determiners

Determiners are function words which always occur with nouns to form noun phrases. They always occur before nouns in the frame. So, to identify all determiners in English, we can use the following frame.

Det1 2 3

(The) -------- is/was --------

-------- s are/were

a/an

every

each

all

All function words that can occupy the position of the in the frame are determiners. They include articles, numerals, possessive pronouns, and demonstratives.

b. Auxiliaries

Auxiliaries are function words which always occur with verbs to form verb phrases. They always precede verbs in the frame. So the auxiliaries can be identified as follows.

Det 1 Aux 2 3

------ ------ (may) (be) ------

might

can

could

will

would

Det 1 Aux 2

------ ------ ------ moved

had

was

got

Det 1 Aux 2

------ ------ ------ moving

was

got

kept

Det 1 Aux 2

------ ------ ------ move

had to

did

c. Intensifiers

Intensifiers are function words that always occur with adjectives or adverbs to form adjective phrases or adverb phrases. They function as modifiers of adjectives or adverbs, they always precede the adjectives or adverbs they modify. So intensifiers can be identified as follows.

Det 1 2 int good

very

quite

awfully

really

pretty

Det 1 2 4 int 4

The team went there very rapidly

quite

pretty

too

rather

all function words that can occupy the position of very in both frames are intensifiers.

d. Prepositions

Prepositions are function words that can occupy the position of the word at in the following frame.

Det 1 Prep Det 1 2 3

----- ----- at ----- ----- ----- -----

for

from

prepositions are commonly followed by nouns or noun phrases to form prepositional phrases or relater-axis phrases.

e. Conjunctions

Conjunctions are function word that can occupy the position of the word and in the following frame.

Det 1 Conj Det 1 2 3

----- ----- and ----- ----- ----- -----

but

not

nor

not all conjunctions can be identified with this frame. There are some conjunctions, called correlative conjunctions, which consists of pairs of words. To identify these conjunctions, we can use the following frame.

Conj Det 1 Conj Det 1 2 3

both ----- ----- and ------ ----- ----- -----

either or

neither nor

not (only) but also

f. Question words

Question words are function words used as signals of question sentences. They can be identified by using the following frames.

QW 2 Det 1 3

When was the concert good?

Where

Why

How

QW Aux Det 1 2

When did the student call?

Where

Why

How

Who

Which

What

QW 2

Who came?

Which

What

v Formal features of the four parts of speech

The four parts of speech – nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs – have their own formal features by which we can recognize them. The formal features can be divided into two parts: the inflectional suffixes and derivational affixes.

1. Nouns

a. Inflectional suffixes

Nouns in English have two inflectional suffixes. They are: the plural (Z₁) and the possessive or genitive {Z2}. The plural inflection {Z1} has three allomorphs {s~z~iz } and a group of irregular ones, including {

} (zero).

The first three allomorphs of the plural suffix (Z₁) are distributed as follows: {s}appears with nouns ending in voiceless consonants, except /s, š, č/;{z} appears with nouns ending in voiced consonants, except /z, ž, ĵ/; and {iz} appears with nouns ending in sibilants and affricatives /s,š, z, ž, č, ĵ/. Examples:

Books /bUks/ Roses /roUziz/

Cups /k˄ps/ Houses /haUziz/

Dogs /dogz/ Churches /č

:čiz/

Cars /ka:z/ Bridges /briĵiz/

The possessive suffix {Z2}has four allomorphs: {s~z~iz~

}. The first three allomorphs have the same distribution as the allomorphs of the plural suffix {Z1}and {

} appears with noun and proper nouns ending in /s/ or /z/. Examples:

The table’s legs The men’s hats

The tables’ legs John’s books

The man’s hat alice’s hair

b. Derivational Affixes

1) Many English nouns are formed by adding the derivational suffixes: {-al,-ure, -y, -ance, -ment, -ity, -ion, -age, - er, -ant, -ing, and -t} to verb stems. Examples:

Arrival Appendage

Failure Helper

Delivery Applicant

Appearance Teaching

Government Deceit

Continuity

Decision

2) There are also many nouns formed by adding the derivational suffixes {-ness, -ity, -th, -ism, -ce, and -dom} to adjective stem. Examples:

Bigness Importance

Activity Wisdom

Truth Freedom

Idealism etc

2. Verbs

Ø Inflectional Suffixes

English verbs have four inflectional suffixes: the third person singular present tense inflectional suffix {Z3}, the past tense inflectional suffix {D1}, the past participle inflectional suffix {D2}, and the present participle inflectional suffix {iȠ₁}. The third person singular inflectional suffix {Z3}has three allomorphs, (s~z~iz), which have the same distribution as the three allomorphs of the plural inflectional suffix {Z1}.

The past tense inflectional suffix {D1} has three allomorphs, (t~d~id), which have the same distribution as the three regular allomorphs of {Z1}. A large number of English verbs have these regular allomorphs of the past tense inflectional suffix {D1}. However, there are many English verbs which have irregular allomorphs of the past tense inflectional suffix {D1}. They are as follows:

(1) Some English verbs whose base forms already end in /t/ or /d/ have a {

} allomorphs, e.g. set, put, hit, shed, spread, etc.

(2) Some English verbs make the past tense form with a change of vowel in the base and the {

} allomorphs of {D1}, e.g. ride-rode, give-gave, take-took, drink-drank, etc.

(3) Some English verbs which add the {t}allomorphs of {D1}show morphophonemic change in the base, e.g. sleep-slept, teach-taught, buy-bought, etc.

(4) Some English verbs which add the {d}allomorphs of {D1}show morphophonemic change in the base e.g. sell-sold, flee-fled, do-did, have-had, etc.

(5) Some English verbs have {t}instead of the regular {d}after the voice consonants /m, n, l/ these verbs can be divided into two groups:

(a) Those that add /t/ to the end of the base, sometimes with a change of the stem vowel, e.g. spill-spilt, dream-dreamt, etc.: most of these have also regular forms in {d}, e.g. burned, dreamed

(b) Those that drop a final /d/ before adding {t},e.g. bend-bent, build-built, etc.

Ø Derivational Affixes

1) Some English verbs are formed by adding the prefix {be-}and {en-}and the suffixes {-ize}, {-fy} and {-en}to nouns, e.g.: befriend, besiege, bewitch, enjoy, enrage, entrain, empower, colonize, idolize, agonize, beautify, glorify, dignify, lengthen, frighten, etc.

2) Some English verbs are formed by adding the suffixes {-en}and {-ize} and the prefix {en-}to adjective stems, e.g.: brighten, darken, cheapen, deeoen, harden, equalize, liberalize, civilize, enable, enlarge, enrich, etc.

3. Adjectives

a. Inflectional suffixes

There are only two inflectional suffixes adjectives can take, namely, {-er} and {-est} to form the comparative and superlative degrees, e.g.:

Big – bigger – biggest

Large – larger – largest

Long – longer – longest

b. Derivational Affixes

1) Many English adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes {-ly, -ish, -al, -ous, -ic, -ar, -ary, -ful, -less, -like, -ate, -en, and D₂} to nouns, e.g.: cloudy, dirty, friendly, lovely, foolish, childish, emotional, optional, famous, religious, historic, syntactic, spectacular, muscular, visionary, documentary, peaceful, powerful, faithless, powerless, lifelike, warlike, fortunate, compassionate, wooden, golden, skilled, wretched, etc.

2) Many adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes {-ent, -ant, -ive, -able, -some, -ory, and, -en} to verb stems, e.g.: confident, excellent, observant, pleasant, creative, selective, readable, payable, meddlesome, winsome, regulatory, winsome, regulatory, congratulatory, molten swollen, etc.

4. Adverbs

a. Inflectional suffixes

Like adjectives, adverbs also have two inflectional suffixes, {-er} and {-est}, to form the comparative and superlative degrees, e.g:

Fast – faster – fastest

Hard – harder – hardest

Late – later – latest

b. Derivation Affixes

1) Many English adverbs are form by adding the suffix {-ly₂} and the prefix {a-} to adjective stems, e.g.: happily, politely, hopefully, normally, abroad, along, aloud, around, etc.

2) Some English adverbs are formed by adding the prefix {a-} and the suffixes {-ly₂} and {-ward} to noun stems, e.g.: away, aboard, ahead, apart, across, daily, hourly, weekly, monthly, yearly, seaward, westward, etc.

v Word Level Formula

1. Tagmemes at word level

There are two basic types of words in human language, simple and complex words. Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units, while complex words can be analyzed into constituent parts, each of which express some identifiable meaning. Complex words consist of inflectional constructions and derivational constructions.

a. Inflectional Constructions

There are two kinds of tagmeme in this construction. They are the nucleus tagmeme¸ that is, the correlation of the nucleus slot and the stem and the inflectional tagmeme, that is, the correlation of the inflectional slot and the inflectional suffix.

The structure canbe formulated as follows:

Word =+Nucleus:stem+Inflection:inflectional suffix

n(noun) =+nnuc:ns +num:numm

pos:posm

v(verb) =+vnuc:vs +t:tm

asp:aspm

adj(adjective) =+adjnuc:adjs +comp:{-er}/supl:{-est}

adv(adverb) =+advnuc:advs +comp:{-er}/supl:{-est}

1) Noun Structure

n = +nnuc:ns +num:numm

pos:posm

Read: A noun consist of a noun nucleus slot filled by a noun stem, a number slot filled by a number marker, and an optional possessive slot filled by a possessive marker.

2) Verb Structure

v = +vnuc:vs +t:tm

asp:aspm

Read: A verb consist of verb nucleus slot filled by a verb stem followed by a tense slot filled by a tense marker, and an optional aspect slot filled by an aspect marker.

3) Adjective Structure

adj = +adjnuc:adjs +comp/supl:{-er}/{-est}

Read: An adjective consist of an adjective nucleus slot filled by an adjective stem followed by a comparative or superlative slot filled by {-er} or {-est}.

4) Adverb Structure

adv = +advnuc:advs +comp/supl:{-er}/{-est}

Read: An adverb consist of an adverb nucleus slot filled by an adverb stem followed by a comparative or superlative slot filled by {-er} or {-est}.

b. Derivational Constructions

A derivational construction consist of two or more tagmemes. The first tagmeme is the correlation of a core slot and a stem or root, and the second tagmeme is the correlation of a derivational slot and a derivational affix. The formula for derivational constructions is as follows:

Word = +Core:stem +Derivational:derivational suffix

n(noun) = +core:vs/adjs +nom:D.2-1/D.3-1

v(verb) = +core:ns/adjs +vbzr:D.1-2/D.3-2

adj(adjective) = +core:ns/vs +adjzr:D.1-3/D.2-3

adv(adverb) = +core:adjs/ns +advzr:D.3-4/D.1-4

1) Noun structure

N = +core:tvs/sdjs +nom:{-men}/{-ness}

Read: A noun consists of a core slot filled by a transitive verb stem or an adjective stem and a nominalizer slot filled by {-ment} or {-ness}.

Examples: management greatness

Government happiness

Improvement kindness

2) Verb structure

V = +core:ns/adjs +vbzr:{-ize}/{-fy}/c

Read: a verb consist of a core slot filled by a noun stem or an adjective stem and a verb alizer slot filled by {-ize}, {-fy}, or {-en}.

Examples: colonize blacken

Idolize sweeten

Beautify etc

3) Adjective structure

Adj = +core:ns/vs +adjzr:{-ly₁}/{-al}/{-ful}/{-less}

Read : An adjective consist of a core slot filled by a noun stem or a verb stem and an adjectivizer slot filled by {-ly₁}, {-al}, {-ful}, or {-less}.

Examples: friendly beautiful

Lovely careless

Educational helpless

4) Adverb structure

Adv = +core:adjs/ns +advzr:{-ly₂}/{a-}

Read: An adverb consist of a core slot filled by an adjective stem or a noun stem an adverbializer slot filled by {-ly₂} or {a-}.

Examples: slowly ashore

Quickly aloud

Normally around

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