Contoh Makalah Syntax

Bookmark and Share



Contoh Makalah Syntax
Contoh Makalah Syntax Thank Godweprayedto Allah SWTwhohas givengrace andHis gift tous so wemanaged tofinishthepaperon timeentitled "Word Level".



            This papercontainsinformationabout the
word level.We realizethat this paperis far from perfect, therefore criticism and suggestionsfromall stakeholdersthat arebuiltfor the perfectionwe alwayshopedthis paper.

            Finally,we saythank youto all those whohave participatedin the preparation ofthis paperfrom beginning to end. May Allahalwaysbe pleased withall our efforts. Amen.




                                                                                     Pare-pare, May2013



                                                                                                                         group IV








TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE………………………………………………………………………….
TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………………….
CLASSIFICATION OF WORD……………………………………………………
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH……………………………….
IDENTIFICATION OF FUNCTION WORDS…………………………………….
FORMAL FEATURES OF THE FOUE PARTS OF SPEECH……………………
WORD LEVEL FORMULA……………………………………………………….


v  THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
The classification of words applied here is not the traditional classification which, based mainly on meaning, classifies all English words commonly into seven parts of speech:
1.      Noun
2.      Verb
3.      Adjective
4.      Adverb
5.      Preposition
6.      Conjunction
7.      Interjection
It is based on the new classification which classifies all English words into two main divisions, namely, Class Words and Function Words. The class words can be further subdivided into: class 1 words (nouns), class 2 words (verbs), class 3 words (adjectives), and class 4 words (adverbs). It is these four classes of word which are called the parts of speech.
The other words which do not belong to these four parts of speech are called function words, namely, words which do not have lexical meanings. These function words always occur with the parts of speech to form phrases.
Based on the parts of speech they occur with, the function words can be subdivided into the following groups: determiner, auxiliaries, intensifiers, prepositions, conjunctions, and question words. The determiners are function words covering the articles, numerals, demonstratives, and possessive pronouns. The auxiliaries are function words which always occur with verbs to form verb phrases. The intensifiers are function words which always occur with adjectives and adverbs to form adjective phrases and adverb phrases. The preposition are function words which always precede nouns or noun phrases to form prepositional phrases or relater-axis phrases. The conjunction are function words which always connect word, phrases, or clauses to form coordinate constructions. The question words are function words used to form question, particularly information question, namely, questions giving further information to listeners.


Fries (1864:75) made us of the so-called minimum free utterance test frames to classify or to identify all English word. The test frames are as follows:
Frame A: The concert was good (always)
Frame B: The clerk remembered the ta (suddenly)
Frame C: The team went there


1.      The Identification of The Parts of Speech
a.       Nouns
All English noun can be identified by using the three test frames, as follows:
v  Frame A
The concert was good
Man
Woman
Film
Theatre
Play
v  Frame B
The clerk remembered the tax
   Worker                       Book
   Teacher                      Secret
                           Student                      Ball
   Boy                            Toy
   Girl                            Secret

v  Frame C
The team went there
  Players
  Students
  Teachers
  Group

     In frame A, only singular nouns can be identified. To identify plural nouns, we have to use were instead of was. Some examples are given below:
The films are/were good
        Plays
        Concerts
        Dramas
        Etc.
There are still many nouns that cannot be identified with this frame. There are many nouns in English that are not preceded by the article, including proper nouns and pronouns. We have to adjust the frame by putting by the article between brackets indicating that it is optional which means that it may or may not occur in the frame.

b.      Verbs
To identify all verbs in English, we can also use the three test frames.
Frame A
                 1        2
(The) ---------- is/was  good
---------- s are/were
                          Seems/seemed
                          Seem
                          Sounds/sounded
                          Sound
All words that can occupy the position of is/was or are/were in the frame are verbs. These verbs are often called linking verbs or equative verbs. Its number is very limited. A list of linking verb is given in the following: feel, taste, smell, look, grow, become, seem, appear, remain, stay, sound, and be.





Frame B
1 2             1
(The) --------- remembered (the) ----------
----------s                  ----------s
       Paid
      Sent
      Received
      Collected
      Rejected
All word that can occupy the position of rememberedin the frame are verbs, namely, verbs which require objects. These verbs are called transitive verbs and its number is rather large.

Frame C
                           1   2
(The) -------- went there
   Arrived
   Stayed
   Worked
   Came
   Lived
All word that can occupy the position of wentin the frame are verbs. These verbs belong to the so-called intransitive verbs, namely, verbs which do not require objects.


c.       Adjectives
     All adjectives in English can be identified using Frame A, but it must be adjusted. Adjectives can be used either as predicate complements or as modifiers of nouns. As modifiers of nouns, adjectives usually precede nouns. So, its frame should be as follows:



Frame A
                            3     1            2       3
(The) good -------- is/was good
-------- s
Nice                                   Nice
Interesting              Interesting
    Friendly          Friendly
Necessary                          Necessary
 Lovely                   Lovely
All words that can occupy the position of goodeither before nouns or after linking verbs are adjectives.


d.      Adverbs
Adverbs in English can be identified as follows:
Frame A
                           3               1               3          4
            (The) --------- ---------- is/was --------- always
----------s are/were
                              sometimes
                                          here
                                          there
                                          soon
                                          now






Frame B
  1                  2                      1       4
(The) ---------- remembered (the) ---------- suddenly
----------s                            ----------s
                                                       Soon
                                                                                    later
                                                                                    clearly
                                                                                    always
                                                                                    especially

            Frame C
                           1           2         4
            (The) ----------- went   there
                                                Out
                                                back
                                                down
                                                up
                                                away

all words that can occupy the position of always in frame A, the position of suddenly in frame B, and the position of there in frame C are adverbs.


2.      The identification of function words
a.       Determiners
      Determiners are function words which always occur with nouns to form noun phrases. They always occur before nouns in the frame. So, to identify all determiners in English, we can use the following frame.



Det1                     2 3
(The) --------        is/was --------
-------- s are/were
                           a/an
                           every
                           no
                           each
                           all
All function words that can occupy the position of the in the frame are determiners. They include articles, numerals, possessive pronouns, and demonstratives.




b.      Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries are function words which always occur with verbs to form verb phrases. They always precede verbs in the frame. So the auxiliaries can be identified as follows.
Det                        1          Aux            2          3
------                    ------        (may)         (be)      ------
                                    might
                                    can
                                    could
                                    will
            would

Det                     1   Aux             2
------                    ------  ------     moved
            had
            was
             got

Det         1       Aux 2
------     ------     ------     moving
was
                        got                              
                        kept

Det         1       Aux       2
------     ------     ------     move
                        had to
                        did



c.       Intensifiers
Intensifiers are function words that always occur with adjectives or adverbs to form adjective phrases or adverb phrases. They function as modifiers of adjectives or adverbs, they always precede the adjectives or adverbs they modify. So intensifiers can be identified as follows.
Det      1          2          int        good
very
quite
awfully
really
pretty

Det      1          2          4          int        4
The      team    went    there    very     rapidly
            quite
            pretty              
            too
            rather
all function words that can occupy the position of very in both frames are intensifiers.

d.      Prepositions
Prepositions are function words that can occupy the position of the word at in the following frame.
Det        1        Prep     Det        1          2          3
-----      -----      at         -----      -----      -----      -----
by
for
from
prepositions are commonly followed by nouns or noun phrases to form prepositional phrases or relater-axis phrases.

e.       Conjunctions
Conjunctions are function word that can occupy the position of the word and in the following frame.
Det        1        Conj    Det        1          2          3
-----      -----      and      -----      -----      -----      -----
but
or
not
nor
not all conjunctions can be identified with this frame. There are some conjunctions, called correlative conjunctions, which consists of pairs of words. To identify these conjunctions, we can use the following frame.
Conj    Det      1          Conj    Det        1          2          3
both     -----      -----      and      ------     -----      -----      -----
either                           or
neither                         nor
not (only)                    but also

f.       Question words
Question words are function words used as signals of question sentences. They can be identified by using the following frames.
QW       2        Det          1            3
When   was      the       concert                good?
Where
Why
How

QW     Aux     Det        1             2
When   did       the       student               call?
Where
Why
How
Who
Which
What

QW                 2
Who                came?
Which
What

v  Formal features of the four parts of speech
The four parts of speech – nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs – have their own formal features by which we can recognize them. The formal features can be divided into two parts: the inflectional suffixes and derivational affixes.




1.      Nouns
a.       Inflectional suffixes
Nouns in English have two inflectional suffixes. They are: the plural (Z1) and the possessive or genitive {Z2}. The plural inflection {Z1} has three allomorphs {s~z~iz } and a group of irregular ones, including {} (zero).
The first three allomorphs of the plural suffix (Z1) are distributed as follows: {s}appears with nouns ending in voiceless consonants, except /s, š, č/;{z} appears with nouns ending in voiced consonants, except /z, ž, ĵ/; and {iz} appears with nouns ending in sibilants and affricatives /s,š, z, ž, č, ĵ/. Examples:
Books /bUks/                          Roses /roUziz/
Cups /k˄ps/                             Houses /haUziz/
Dogs /dogz/                             Churches /č:čiz/
Cars /ka:z/                               Bridges /briĵiz/

The possessive suffix {Z2}has four allomorphs: {s~z~iz~}. The first three allomorphs have the same distribution as the allomorphs of the plural suffix {Z1}and {} appears with noun and proper nouns ending in /s/ or /z/. Examples:
The table’s legs                       The men’s hats
The tables’ legs                       John’s books
The man’s hat                          alice’s hair

b.      Derivational Affixes
1)      Many English nouns are formed by adding the derivational suffixes: {-al,-ure, -y, -ance, -ment, -ity, -ion, -age, - er, -ant, -ing, and -t} to verb stems. Examples:
Arrival             Appendage
Failure             Helper
Delivery          Applicant
Appearance     Teaching
Government    Deceit
Continuity                  
Decision

2)      There are also many nouns formed by adding the derivational suffixes {-ness, -ity, -th, -ism, -ce, and -dom} to adjective stem. Examples:
Bigness                        Importance
Activity                       Wisdom
Truth                           Freedom
Idealism                      etc

2.      Verbs
Ø  Inflectional Suffixes
English verbs have four inflectional suffixes: the third person singular present tense inflectional suffix {Z3}, the past tense inflectional suffix {D1}, the past participle inflectional suffix {D2}, and the present participle inflectional suffix {iȠ1}. The third person singular inflectional suffix {Z3}has three allomorphs, (s~z~iz), which have the same distribution as the three allomorphs of the plural inflectional suffix {Z1}.
The past tense inflectional suffix {D1} has three allomorphs, (t~d~id), which have the same distribution as the three regular allomorphs of {Z1}. A large number of English verbs have these regular allomorphs of the past tense inflectional suffix {D1}. However, there are many English verbs which have irregular allomorphs of the past tense inflectional suffix {D1}. They are as follows:
(1)   Some English verbs whose base forms already end in /t/ or /d/ have a {} allomorphs, e.g. set, put, hit, shed, spread, etc.
(2)   Some English verbs make the past tense form with a change of vowel in the base and the {} allomorphs of {D1}, e.g. ride-rode, give-gave, take-took, drink-drank, etc.
(3)   Some English verbs which add the {t}allomorphs of {D1}show morphophonemic change in the base, e.g. sleep-slept, teach-taught, buy-bought, etc.
(4)   Some English verbs which add the {d}allomorphs of {D1}show morphophonemic change in the base e.g. sell-sold, flee-fled, do-did, have-had, etc.
(5)   Some English verbs have {t}instead of the regular {d}after the voice consonants /m, n, l/ these verbs can be divided into two groups:
(a)    Those that add /t/ to the end of the base, sometimes with a change of the stem vowel, e.g. spill-spilt, dream-dreamt, etc.: most of these have also regular forms in {d}, e.g. burned, dreamed
(b)   Those that drop a final /d/ before adding {t},e.g. bend-bent, build-built, etc.


Ø  Derivational Affixes
1)      Some English verbs are formed by adding the prefix {be-}and {en-}and the suffixes {-ize}, {-fy} and {-en}to nouns, e.g.: befriend, besiege, bewitch, enjoy, enrage, entrain, empower, colonize, idolize, agonize, beautify, glorify, dignify, lengthen, frighten, etc.
2)      Some English verbs are formed by adding the suffixes {-en}and {-ize} and the prefix {en-}to adjective stems, e.g.: brighten, darken, cheapen, deeoen, harden, equalize, liberalize, civilize, enable, enlarge, enrich, etc.




3.      Adjectives
a.       Inflectional suffixes
There are only two inflectional suffixes adjectives can take, namely, {-er} and {-est} to form the comparative and superlative degrees, e.g.:
Big – bigger – biggest
Large – larger – largest
Long – longer – longest






b.      Derivational Affixes
1)      Many English adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes {-ly, -ish, -al, -ous, -ic, -ar, -ary, -ful, -less, -like, -ate, -en, and D2} to nouns, e.g.: cloudy, dirty, friendly, lovely, foolish, childish, emotional, optional, famous, religious, historic, syntactic, spectacular, muscular, visionary, documentary, peaceful, powerful, faithless, powerless, lifelike, warlike, fortunate, compassionate, wooden, golden, skilled, wretched, etc.
2)      Many adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes {-ent, -ant, -ive, -able, -some, -ory, and, -en} to verb stems, e.g.: confident, excellent, observant, pleasant, creative, selective, readable, payable, meddlesome, winsome, regulatory, winsome, regulatory, congratulatory, molten swollen, etc.
4.      Adverbs
a.       Inflectional suffixes
Like adjectives, adverbs also have two inflectional suffixes, {-er} and {-est}, to form the comparative and superlative degrees, e.g:
Fast – faster – fastest
Hard – harder – hardest
Late – later – latest

b.      Derivation Affixes
1)      Many English adverbs are form by adding the suffix {-ly2} and the prefix {a-} to adjective stems, e.g.: happily, politely, hopefully, normally, abroad, along, aloud, around, etc.
2)      Some English adverbs are formed by adding the prefix {a-} and the suffixes {-ly2} and {-ward} to noun stems, e.g.: away, aboard, ahead, apart, across, daily, hourly, weekly, monthly, yearly, seaward, westward, etc.

v  Word Level Formula
1. Tagmemes at word level
There are two basic types of words in human language, simple and complex words. Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units, while complex words can be analyzed into constituent parts, each of which express some identifiable meaning. Complex words consist of inflectional constructions and derivational constructions.
a.       Inflectional Constructions
There are two kinds of tagmeme in this construction. They are the nucleus tagmeme¸ that is, the correlation of the nucleus slot and the stem and the inflectional tagmeme, that is, the correlation of the inflectional slot and the inflectional suffix.
The structure canbe formulated as follows:
Word               =+Nucleus:stem+Inflection:inflectional suffix
n(noun)            =+nnuc:ns          +num:numm             pos:posm
v(verb)             =+vnuc:vs          +t:tm                                    asp:aspm
adj(adjective)  =+adjnuc:adjs    +comp:{-er}/supl:{-est}
adv(adverb)     =+advnuc:advs   +comp:{-er}/supl:{-est}

1)      Noun Structure
n = +nnuc:ns +num:nummpos:posm
Read: A noun consist of a noun nucleus slot filled by a noun stem, a number slot filled by a number marker, and an optional possessive slot filled by a possessive marker.
2)      Verb Structure
v = +vnuc:vs +t:tmasp:aspm
Read: A verb consist of verb nucleus slot filled by a verb stem followed by a tense slot filled by a tense marker, and an optional aspect slot filled by an aspect marker.

3)      Adjective Structure
adj = +adjnuc:adjs +comp/supl:{-er}/{-est}
Read: An adjective consist of an adjective nucleus slot filled by an adjective stem followed by a comparative or superlative slot filled by {-er} or {-est}.



4)      Adverb Structure
adv = +advnuc:advs +comp/supl:{-er}/{-est}
Read: An adverb consist of an adverb nucleus slot filled by an adverb stem followed by a comparative or superlative slot filled by {-er} or {-est}.

b.      Derivational Constructions
A derivational construction consist of two or more tagmemes. The first tagmeme is the correlation of a core slot and a stem or root, and the second tagmeme is the correlation of a derivational slot and a derivational affix. The formula for derivational constructions is as follows:
Word               = +Core:stem  +Derivational:derivational suffix
n(noun)            = +core:vs/adjs            +nom:D.2-1/D.3-1
v(verb) = +core:ns/adjs            +vbzr:D.1-2/D.3-2
adj(adjective)  = +core:ns/vs               +adjzr:D.1-3/D.2-3
adv(adverb)     = +core:adjs/ns            +advzr:D.3-4/D.1-4

1)      Noun structure
N = +core:tvs/sdjs +nom:{-men}/{-ness}
Read: A noun consists of a core slot filled by a transitive verb stem or an adjective stem and a nominalizer slot filled by {-ment} or {-ness}.
Examples: management                greatness
                  Government                happiness
                  Improvement               kindness






2)      Verb structure
V = +core:ns/adjs +vbzr:{-ize}/{-fy}/c
Read: a verb consist of a core slot filled by a noun stem or an adjective stem and a verb alizer slot filled by {-ize}, {-fy}, or {-en}.
Examples: colonize           blacken
                  Idolize             sweeten
                  Beautify          etc

3)      Adjective structure
Adj = +core:ns/vs +adjzr:{-ly1}/{-al}/{-ful}/{-less}
Read : An adjective consist of a core slot filled by a noun stem or a verb stem and an adjectivizer slot filled by {-ly1}, {-al}, {-ful}, or {-less}.
Examples: friendly           beautiful
                  Lovely             careless
                  Educational     helpless

4)      Adverb structure
Adv = +core:adjs/ns +advzr:{-ly2}/{a-}
Read: An adverb consist of a core slot filled by an adjective stem or a noun stem an adverbializer slot filled by {-ly2} or {a-}.
Examples: slowly              ashore
                  Quickly           aloud
                  Normally         around

{ 0 komentar... Views All / Send Comment! }

Posting Komentar